Abstract

Mosques function as vital spaces for sustained worship and community engagement; however, structural provisions for women’s religious and communal activities are often inadequately addressed or insufficiently aligned with Shariah requirements. This inadequacy constitutes a core problem, as non-compliant or poorly designed architectural features may hinder women’s participation and compromise adherence to Islamic legal principles. Accordingly, this study addresses the problem by systematically examining structural design aspects and synthesizing them into a generalizable framework for Shariah-compliant, women-friendly mosque design. This article analyzes mosque design features that fulfill Shariah requirements for women, particularly regarding the preservation of modesty and privacy, ʿawrah, and the practical needs of women’s religious activities. Methodologically, the study adopts a qualitative approach comprising document analysis and observation, complemented by semi-structured interviews with relevant stakeholders from mosque institutions. The findings indicate that improving mosque design toward outcomes that are women-friendly and Shariah-compliant requires the development of dedicated guidelines specifying spaces for worship and women’s religious and community activities, thereby aligning mosque environments with Shariah obligations for women.

References

Abu al-Hasan ‘Ali bin Muhammad bin Habib al-Basri al-Baghdadi, al-Mawardi, Tafsir Al-Mawardi: Al-Nukat Wa Al-‘Uyun (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah)

al-Qāḍī Abū Yaʿlā al-Farrāʾ Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥusayn ibn Muḥammad al-Baghdādī al-Ḥanbalī, Al-Taʿlīqah Al-Kabīrah Fī Masāʾil Al-Khilāf ʿalā Madhhab Aḥmad (Beirut: Dār al-Nawādir, 2010)

Aniza Abu Bakar & Nur Ayuni Mohd Bohari, ‘Children Friendly Masjid: Physical Layout and Perspective of Children and Families’, Journal of Architecture, Planning & Construction Management, 9 (2019), 1–22

Aryanti, Tutin, Trias Megayanti, Indah Susanti and Dian Fitria, ‘Gender and Socio-Spatial Assemblage at Masjid Al-Irsyad Kota Baru Parahyangan, Indonesia’, Journal of Islamic Architecture, 8 (2024), 371–79 https://doi.org/10.18860/jia.v8i2.23476

Azizah Adnan, Nor, Raja Nafida Raja Shahminan, Fawazul Khair Ibrahim, Hannifah Tami, M Rizal M. Yusuff, Emedya Murniwaty Samsudin, and others, ‘Acoustic Quality Levels of Mosques in Batu Pahat’, IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 140 (2018), 012009 https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/140/1/012009

Bayan, Fawzi P, Thomas A Timbario, Jonathan D Nelson, Stuart Sheldon, Ronny E Wahba and Brandon Keys, ‘A Systematic Study of Pedestrian Contrast and Detection From Vehicle Headlights’, in Volume 13: Safety Engineering, Risk, and Reliability Analysis; Research Posters (American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2021) https://doi.org/10.1115/IMECE2021-71215

Bhagavathula, Rajaram, Ron Gibbons and Maury Nussbaum, ‘Does the Interaction between Vehicle Headlamps and Roadway Lighting Affect Visibility? A Study of Pedestrian and Object Contrast’, 2020 https://doi.org/10.4271/2020-01-0569

Clarke, David J, ‘Using Qualitative Observational Methods in Rehabilitation Research: Part Two’, International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation, 16 (2009)

Faradilla Fadlia, Ismar Ramadani and Siti Nur Zalikha, ‘Women Friendly Mosque in Banda Aceh: A Study of the Concept of Gender Justice and Gender Planning Perspective’, Sawwa: Jurnal Studi Gender, 16 (2021), 101–20 https://doi.org/10.21580/sa.v16i1.6330

Hammer, Juliane, ‘Gender Justice in a Prayer: American Muslim Women’sExegesis, Authority, and Leadership’, Hawwa, 8 (2010), 26–54 https://doi.org/10.1163/156920810X504531

Ibnu Kathir, Al Misbahul Munir Fi Tahzib Tafsir Ibnu Katsir (Sine Loco: Darussalam, 2000)

———, Tafsir Al-Quran Al-Azim (Kaherah: Maktabah Aulad Al-Sheih li Turath, 2000) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-26487-2_14

Ibrāhīm al-Bājūrī, Ḥāshiyah Al-Bājūrī ‘alā Sharḥ Ibn Qāsim Al-Ghuzzī ‘alā Matn Abī Shujā‘ (Beirut: Dar al-Minhaj, 2002)

Indrarani, Indri Astrina Fitria, Shaufa Salsabila Sari, Aldyfra Luhulima Lukman and Sahid Sahid, ‘Assessing Social Sustainability in Mosque as Religious Building, Case Study: Al-Lathiif Mosque, Bandung-West Java, Indonesia’, Journal of Islamic Architecture, 8 (2025), 627–42 https://doi.org/10.18860/jia.v8i3.26570

Ismail, Eka Danik Prashastiwi &Diah Wahyuningsih, ‘Peran Masjid Dalam Pendidikan Ahlak (Studi Kasus Di Masjid Besar Baitus Shomad Tegalombo Pacitan)’, Jurnal Manajemen Dan Pendidikan Dasar, 2 (2022), 253–62

Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia (Jakim), ‘Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia’, Https://Www.Islam.Gov.My/Ms/, 2024

Jabatan Perancangan Bandar dan Desa Semenanjung Malaysia, ‘Garis Panduan Perancangan Rumah Ibadat Islam’, 2023

Karsono, Bambang, Zayn Al Abideen Gregory, Dona Rose Amer Koesmeri, Awang Hashim Bin Awang Sulong and Atta Idrawani Zaini, ‘The Usefulness of Main Prayer Hall of Masjid Agung Islamic Center of Lhokseumawe, Aceh - Indonesia’, IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 401 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/401/1/012012

Kim, In-Ju, Omar Hasan Omar and Rinada Abbas El Deeb, ‘Safety Overview of Ablution Spaces in the UAE Mosques: A Randomised Survey in Three Cities’, in 2020 Advances in Science and Engineering Technology International Conferences (ASET) (IEEE, 2020), pp. 1–5 https://doi.org/10.1109/ASET48392.2020.9118392

Kraner, Jan, ‘Methods’, 2018, pp. 55–75 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74926-6_3

Lanteigne, Victoria, Traci Rose Rider and Peter A Stratton, ‘Inclusive Building Performance: A New Design Paradigm’, 2023, pp. 783–91 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-36302-3_57

Lima, Valderez Marina do Rosário, Marcelo Prado Amaral-Rosa and Maurivan Güntzel Ramos, ‘Análise Textual Discursiva Apoiado Por Software: IRaMuTeQ e a Análise de Subcorpus’, 2021, pp. 1–9 https://doi.org/10.36367/ntqr.7.2021.1-9

Masad, Ihssan S, Sami Almashaqbeh, Othman Smadi, Mariam Abu Olaim and Abeer Obeid, ‘Spinal Curvature and Lower Extremities Kinematics of Simulated Pregnancy during Stair Ascending and Descending’, Journal of Biomimetics, Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, 41 (2019), 11–22 https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/JBBBE.41.11

Md Dawal, Siti Zawiah, W Mirta, A Nur Syahirah and A Muhammad Suhairi, ‘Ablution Workstations Design’, Ablution Workstations Design for Person with Physical Disabilities in Malaysia, 20 (2020), 101–7

Mohammed, Hassnaa, ‘From Women’s Sections: Place Affordances and Women’s Sense of Place in American Mosques’, Gender, Place & Culture, 31 (2024), 1095–1117 https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2022.2150606

Mohd Idris Moh Yussoff & Syarul Azman Shahruddin, ‘Kajian Terhadap Aktiviti-Aktiviti Di Masjid Al-Hasanah Bandar Baru Bangi Ke Arah" Masjid Mesra Remaja"’, Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences, 7 (2020), 161–75

Mohd Rofaizal Ibhraim, Mohamad Sabri Harun &Abdull Rahman Mahmood, ‘Pengurusan Dana Khairat Masjid Daripada Perspektif Perlembangaan, Undang-Undang, Sains Sosial Dan Syarak’, Journal of Muwafaqat, 4 (2021), 51–61

Mokhtar, Ahmed Hanafi, ‘Design Guidelines for Female Muslim Prayer Facilities in Public Buildings’, Facilities, 38 (2019), 252–67 https://doi.org/10.1108/F-04-2019-0052

Nangkula Utaberta, Fariba Samia, Siti Balkish and Noor Fazamimah, ‘An Analysis of Women’s Access and Participation in the Mosques in the Contemporary World’, IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 401 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/401/1/012032

Navarrete-Hernandez, Pablo, Arielle Vetro and Paz Concha, ‘Building Safer Public Spaces: Exploring Gender Difference in the Perception of Safety in Public Space through Urban Design Interventions’, Landscape and Urban Planning, 214 (2021), 104180 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2021.104180

Nawawi, Norwina Mohd, Zaiton Abdul Rahim, Noor Hanita Abdul Majid and Puteri Shireen Jahn Kassim, ‘Investigation on Women’S Space in Masjid Architecture: Case Study of Selected Masjids in Malaysia’, UIA2014 DURBAN Architecture OTHERWHERE, 2014, 657–65

Nazneen Ismail, Sahlawati Abu Bakar, Khairunnisa Ismail and Norul Huda Bakar, ‘Peranan Muslimat Dalam Menjadikan Masjid Sebagai Pusat Khidmat Sosial’, International Journal of Mosque, Zakat And Waqaf Management (Al-Mimbar), 2023, 13–26 https://doi.org/10.53840/almimbar.v3i2.74

Nur Farah Atikah Mohd Razif, Norliza Mohd Isa and Raja Nafida Raja Shahminan, ‘Women Friendly Mosque: An Overview’, Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Environment Management, 7 (2022), 121–29 https://doi.org/10.35631/jthem.727011

Raftery, Paul, Jay Fizer, Wenhua Chen, Yingdong He, Hui Zhang, Edward Arens, and others, ‘Ceiling Fans: Predicting Indoor Air Speeds Based on Full Scale Laboratory Measurements’, Building and Environment, 155 (2019), 210–23 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.03.040

Ray, Amal, Niranjan Bhowmick and Subrata Ghosh, ‘Designing of Woven Textile Fabrics for Greenhouse Covering Material’, Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India): Series E, 103 (2022), 179–88 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40034-022-00247-3

Sacht, Helenice Maria, Luís Bragança, Manuela Almeida and Rosana Caram, ‘Specification of Glazings for Façades Based on Spectrophotometric Characterization of Transmittance’, Sustainability, 13 (2021), 5437 https://doi.org/10.3390/su13105437

Sekar, Devi and Mohanraj Bhuvaneswari, ‘Exploring the Depths’, 2024, pp. 267–92 https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3693-1726-6.ch014

Senel, Aysenur, ‘The Rise of Feminine in “Patriarchal” Mosques: An Inquiry into The Changing Role of Women in Mosque Architecture’, SPACE International Journal of Conference Proceedings, 1 (2021), 38–46 https://doi.org/10.51596/sijocp.v1i1.13

Shach-Pinsly, Dalit, Dafna Fisher-Gewirtzman and Michael Burt, ‘Visual Exposure and Visual Openness: An Integrated Approach and Comparative Evaluation’, Journal of Urban Design, 16 (2011), 233–56 https://doi.org/10.1080/13574809.2011.548979

Siti Fatimah Salleh, ‘Muslimah Dan Masjid Dari Perspektif Aktiviti Ibadah’, Jurnal Islam Dan Masyarakat Kontemporari, 2011, 71–81

Siti Rokyah Md Zain, Ros Norita Abd Samad, Mohamed Muneer Samsudin and Wan Anuar Wan Mamat, ‘Prasarana Masjid Mesra Wanita Islam: Satu Tinjauan’, E-Proceeding of the 4th International Conference on Masjid, Zakat and Waqf Management 2017 (IMAF-2017), 2017 (2017), 266–75

Siwi, Samsu Hendra, ‘Private in Public Space: The Needs of Muslim Women in Mosque Spaces Case Study: Al-Barkah Mosque, Bekasi, Indonesia’, ARTEKS : Jurnal Teknik Arsitektur, 10 (2025), 409–20 https://doi.org/10.30822/arteks.v10i2.4409

Stensdotter, Ann‐Katrin, Kjartan Vårbakken and Karin Roeleveld, ‘Factors Associated with Self‐rated Difficulty to Descend Stairs in Persons with Knee Osteoarthritis’, PM&R, 15 (2023), 9–19 https://doi.org/10.1002/pmrj.12698

Suratkon, A, NN Abd Salam, MH Rahmat, AS Mohd Arhan, I Abd Wahab and SA Ghaffar, ‘Woman Friendly Mosque, Features and Facilities: A Case Study on Masjid Sultan Ibrahim, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia’, IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 291 (2018), 0–6 https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/291/1/012019

Tai, Nan-Ching, ‘Computational Investigation of the Illusory Depth Effect of Luminance Contrast on a Three-Dimensional Architectural Scene with Binocular Vision’, Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 14 (2015), 331–38 https://doi.org/10.3130/jaabe.14.331

Tian, Wei, Qian Qian Luo, Guo Yan Jiao and Cheng Yan Zhu, ‘Study on the Shading Property of the Fabric’, Advanced Materials Research, 502 (2012), 287–91 https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.502.287

Velasco, Alejandra, Amitava Halder, Kalev Kuklane and Enrico Ronchi, ‘The Impact of Carrying Load on Physical Performance during Ascending Evacuation Movement’, Fire and Materials, 45 (2021), 488–97 https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.2844

Verma, Abhishek, Siddhant Shrivastava and Janakarajan Ramkumar, ‘Mapping Wheelchair Functions and Their Associated Functional Elements for Stair Climbing Accessibility: A Systematic Review’, Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology, 19 (2024), 200–221 https://doi.org/10.1080/17483107.2022.2075476

Wahbah al-Zuhayli, Fiqh Islamiah Wa Adilatiha (Damsyik: Dar Fikr, 2008)

Wahbah ibn Muṣṭafá ibn Muḥammad al-Zuḥaylī, Al-Tafsīr Al-Munīr Fī Al-ʿaqīdah Wa Al-Sharīʿah Wa Al-Manhaj (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, 1991)

Wigley, Edward and Rashida Bibi, ‘“Why Has This Guy Got His Foot in the Sink?”: Challenges, Encounters and Everyday Geographies of Practicing Wudu’, Social & Cultural Geography, 25 (2024), 1355–73 https://doi.org/10.1080/14649365.2024.2313479

Yilmaz, İbrahim, ‘Approaches to the Principle of Satr Al-Awrah in Prayer in the Mālikī School of Law’, Cumhuriyet İlahiyat Dergisi, 26 (2022), 303–20 https://doi.org/10.18505/cuid.1079316

Zawin Hannan Sofea Shahbudin & Setiyawan Gunardi, ‘Tinjauan Literatur Sistematik Terhadap Peranan Institusi Masjid Di Malaysia’, Journal of Islamic Social Sciences and Humanities, 29 (2023), 54–71 https://doi.org/10.33102/abqari.vol29no1.508

Zhang, Lu, Nipesh Pradhananga and Newton D’Souza, ‘Capturing Human Sensation Using Physiological Sensing Devices to Support Human-Centered Indoor Environment Design’, in Construction Research Congress 2018 (Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2018), pp. 178–88 https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784481301.018